Skip to main content Skip to main navigation menu Skip to site footer

Journal of Ideas in Health

Articles
DOI: 10.47108/jidhealth.Vol5.Iss4.264
Submitted: 2022-11-21
Published: 2022-12-29

Blood cholinesterase activities and oxidative stress status among farmworkers using pesticides in Duhok, KRG, Iraq

Department of Pharmacology, College of Pharmacy, University of Duhok, KRG, Iraq
Department of Physiology, Biochemistry and Pharmacology, College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Mosul, Mosul, Iraq

Abstract

Background: The use of pesticides by farmworkers poses considerable health risks. This study was undertaken to examine plasma and erythrocyte cholinesterase activities, plasma oxidative biomarkers malondialdehyde (MDA), and total antioxidant status (TAS) among farmworkers using different pesticide products in Duhok, northern of Iraq.

Methods: This is a case-control study conducted between November 2021 to July 2022 on 92 male farmworkers who were exposed to pesticides in comparison with 44 non-exposed male subjects (control). The availability and uses of pesticides were obtained from 19 agrochemical shops and the farmworkers exposed to pesticides. Demographic data of pesticide-exposed farmworkers and their practice of pesticide applications were recorded. Plasma and erythrocyte cholinesterase activities and plasma MDA and TAS levels were determined in both groups.

Results: The farmworkers had a significant 10.0% increase in plasma MDA level, with no significant changes in blood cholinesterase activities or the TAS level. Odds and risk ratios of reduced plasma cholinesterase activity (20.0%) suggested an association of health risks in pesticide-exposed farmworkers. Most of the pesticide products (278) in use were insecticides (47.0%), which comprised mainly 26.0% pyrethroids and 3.0-7.0% anticholinesterase insecticides, among others. The majority of the farmworkers (51%) were merely aware of the general target use of the pesticide, and 75% had an exposure history of > 5 years. Pesticide application was mostly (50.0%) manual, and 54.0% used insufficient personal protection equipment; 32.0% ate and drank at work, 48.0% practiced disposal of empty pesticide containers by burning and/or burying them, whereas 25.0% dumped the containers indiscriminately, and 25% disposed them at garbage sites openly.

Conclusion: The farmworkers, with only a marginal increase in oxidative stress biomarker MDA, did not suffer from significant reductions in blood cholinesterase activities, although odds and risk ratios of reduced plasma cholinesterase activity suggested a health risk. Implementation of a national program is needed to measure pre-exposure blood cholinesterase activities in farmworkers.



Downloads

Download data is not yet available.

References

  1. Pandya IY. Pesticides and their applications in agriculture. Asian J Appl Sci Technol. 2018;2(2):894-900.
  2. Rashid S, Rashid W, Tulcan RXS, Huang H. Use, exposure, and environmental impacts of pesticides in Pakistan: a critical review. Environ Sci Pollut Res Int. 2022;29(29):43675-43689. doi: 10.1007/s11356-022-20164-7.
  3. Tudi M, Daniel Ruan H, Wang L, Lyu J, Sadler R, Connell D, Chu C, Phung DT. Agriculture development, pesticide application and its impact on the environment. Int J Environ Res Public Health. 2021;18(3):1112. doi: 10.3390/ijerph18031112.
  4. Baynes RE. Ectoparasiticides. In: Riviere JE, Papich MG (Eds). Veterinary pharmacology and therapeutics. 10th edition. Hoboken, NJ, USA: Wiley Blackwell & Son, Inc. 2018; 1166-1187.
  5. Wilson BW. Cholinesterase inhibition. In: Wexler P (Ed). Encyclopedia of toxicology. 3rd ed. Amesterdam: Elsevier 2014; 942-951.
  6. WHO. WHO recommended classification of pesticides by hazard and guidelines to classification, 2019 edition. Geneva: World Health Organization; 2020.
  7. WHO. Global situation of pesticide management in agriculture and public health. Geneva: World Health Organization and Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations; 2019.
  8. Samareh A, Asadikaram G, MojtabaAbbasi-Jorjandi, Abdollahdokht D, Abolhassani M, Khanjani N, Nematollahi MH. Occupational exposure to pesticides in farmworkers and the oxidative markers. Toxicol Ind Health. 2022;38(8):455-469. doi: 10.1177/07482337221106754.
  9. Rajmohan KS, Chandrasekaran R, Varjani S. A review on occurrence of pesticides in environment and current technologies for their remediation and management. Indian J Microbiol. 2020;60(2):125-138. doi: 10.1007/s12088-019-00841-x.
  10. Saravi SSS, Shokrzadeh M. Role of pesticides in human life in the modern age: a review. In: Stoytcheva M, editor. Pesticides in the modern world - risks and benefits Rijeka, Croatia: In Tech; 2011.
  11. Ecobichon DJ. Pesticide use in developing countries. Toxicology. 2001;160(1-3):27-33. doi: 10.1016/s0300-483x(00)00452-2.
  12. Ben Khadda Z, Fagroud M, El Karmoudi Y, Ezrari S, Berni I, De Broe M, Behl T, Bungau SG, Sqalli Houssaini T. Farmers' knowledge, attitudes, and perceptions regarding carcinogenic pesticides in Fez Meknes Region (Morocco). Int J Environ Res Pub Health. 2021;18(20):10879. doi: 10.3390/ijerph182010879.
  13. Jongerden J, Wolters W, Dijkxhoorn Y. Explorative study agricultural development in Iraq and the Federal Kurdistan Autonomous Region; 2018. https://www.government.nl/documents/reports/2018/11/09/explorative-study-agricultural-development-in-iraq-and-the-federal-kurdistan-autonomous-region (accessed 7.8.2021).
  14. Ahmed ZFG, Majeed BK. A survey study of pesticide application pattern in selected plastic houses in Sulaimani governorate/Iraq. J Z Sulaimani. (University of Sulaimani). 2020;2: 63-76.
  15. Lopes-Ferreira M, Maleski ALA, Balan-Lima L, Bernardo JTG, Hipolito LM, Seni-Silva AC, Batista-Filho J, Falcao MAP, Lima C. Impact of pesticides on human health in the last six years in Brazil. Int J Environ Res Pub Health. 2022;19(6):3198. doi: 10.3390/ijerph19063198.
  16. Ahmed AS. Evaluation of acetylcholine esterase activity in the blood of workers exposed to organophosphate and carbamate insecticides by an electrometric method. Kirkuk J Sci Stud. (University of Kirkuk). 2013;3(3): 26-33.
  17. Ahmed OAH, Mohammad FK. Electrometric determination of blood cholinesterase activities in workers exposed to insecticides in Mosul, Iraq. R J Env. Toxicol. 2007;1: 144-148. https://dx.doi.org/10.3923/rjet.2007.144.148
  18. Al-Haseni ANA, Yahya BM. Measurement of plasma cholinesterase activity in field workers. Iraqi J Pharm. 2012;12(1):41-47.
  19. Othman BA, Kakey ES. Environmental pesticides residues and health biomarkers among farmers from greenhouses of Erbil cucumber crops. Iraqi J Agric Sci. 2020;51(5):1357-1366.
  20. Mohammed AA, Mohammad FK. Monitoring blood cholinesterase activity of farmworkers: in vitro inhibition by diphenhydramine and carbaryl. Malaysian Appl Biol. 2022;51:23-32.
  21. Cotton J, Edwards J, Rahman MA, Brumby S. Cholinesterase research outreach project (CROP): point of care cholinesterase measurement in an Australian agricultural community. Environ Health. 2018;17(1):31. doi: 10.1186/s12940-018-0374-1.
  22. Assis CRD, Linhares AG, Cabrera MP, Oliveira VM, Silva KCC, Marcuschi M, Maciel Carvalho EVM, Bezerra RS, Carvalho LB Jr. Erythrocyte acetylcholinesterase as biomarker of pesticide exposure: new and forgotten insights. Environ Sci Pollut Res Int. 2018;25(19):18364-18376. doi: 10.1007/s11356-018-2303-9.
  23. Abbasi-Jorjandi M, Asadikaram G, Abolhassani M, Fallah H, Abdollahdokht D, Salimi F, Faramarz S, Pournamdari M. Pesticide exposure and related health problems among family members of farmworkers in southeast Iran. A case-control study. Environ Pollut. 2020; 267:115424. doi: 10.1016/j.envpol.2020.115424.
  24. Kapka-Skrzypczak L, Cyranka M, Skrzypczak M, Kruszewski M. Biomonitoring and biomarkers of organophosphate pesticides exposure - state of the art. Ann Agric Environ Med. 2011;18(2):294-303. PMID: 22216802.
  25. Jaga K. Dharmani C. Sources of exposure to and public health implications of organophosphate pesticides. Revista Panamericana de Salud Publica. (Pan Am J Pub Health). 2002;14(3):171-185.
  26. Vale A, Lotti M. Organophosphorus and carbamate insecticide poisoning. Handb Clin Neurol. 2015;131:149-68. doi: 10.1016/B978-0-444-62627-1.00010-X.
  27. Wilson, BW. Cholinesterase inhibition. In: Wexler P (Ed). Encyclopedia of toxicology. 3rd ed, Amesterdam: Elsevier; 2014. pp. 942-951.
  28. Wilson BW, Arrieta DE, Henderson JD. Monitoring cholinesterases to detect pesticide exposure. Chemico-biol Interac. 2005 Dec;157-158:253-256. DOI: 10.1016/j.cbi.2005.10.043. PMID: 16298353.
  29. Mohammad FK, Alias AS, Ahmed OA. Electrometric measurement of plasma, erythrocyte, and whole blood cholinesterase activities in healthy human volunteers. J Med Toxicol. 2007;3(1):25-30. doi: 10.1007/BF03161035.
  30. Mohammad FK. Clarifying an electrometric method for determining blood cholinesterase activity: a scientific letter. Asia Pac J Med Toxicol. 2022;11(1):30-32. doi: 10.22038/apjmt.2022.19924
  31. Ciesielski S, Loomis DP, Mims SR, Auer A. Pesticide exposures, cholinesterase depression, and symptoms among North Carolina migrant farmworkers. Am J Public Health. 1994;84(3):446-51. doi: 10.2105/ajph.84.3.446.
  32. Buege JA, Aust SD. Microsomal lipid peroxidation. Methods Enzymol. 1978; 52:302-10. doi: 10.1016/s0076-6879(78)52032-6.
  33. doi: 10.2105/ajph.84.3.446. PMID: 8129063; PMCID: PMC1614838.
  34. Imoro ZA, Larbi J, Duwiejuah AB. Pesticide Availability and Usage by Farmers in the Northern Region of Ghana. J Health Pollut. 2019 Aug 6;9(23):190906. doi: 10.5696/2156-9614-9.23.190906.
  35. Buczyńska A, Szadkowska-Stańczyk I. Identification of health hazards to rural population living near pesticide dump sites in Poland. Int J Occup Med Environ Health. 2005;18(4):331-9. PMID: 16617849.
  36. Atreya K, Sitaula BK, Bajracharya RM. Pesticide use in agriculture: the philosophy, complexities and opportunities. Sci Res Essays. 2012;7(25):2168–73.
  37. Remoundou K, Brennan M, Hart A, Frewer LJ. Pesticide risk perceptions, knowledge, and attitudes of operators, workers, and residents: a review of the literature. Hum Ecol Risk Assess. 2014;20(4):1113–38. doi: 10.1080/10807039.2013.799405.
  38. Environmental Protection Agency. Pesticides: health and safety. National Assessment of the Worker Protection Workshop #3. Washington DC, USA: EPA; 2007.
  39. Sharma N, Singhvi R. Effects of chemical fertilizers and pesticides on human health and environment: a review. Int J Agric Environ Biotechnol. 2017;10(6):675–9.
  40. Neupane D, Jørs E, Brandt L. Pesticide use, erythrocyte acetylcholinesterase level and self-reported acute intoxication symptoms among vegetable farmers in Nepal: a cross-sectional study. Environ Health. 2014; 13:98. doi: 10.1186/1476-069X-13-98.
  41. Lessenger JE. Fifteen years of experience in cholinesterase monitoring of insecticide applicators. J Agromedicine. 2005;10(3):49-56. doi: 10.1300/j096v10n03_06.
  42. Lessenger JE, Reese BE. Rational use of cholinesterase activity testing in pesticide poisoning. J Am Board Fam Pract. 1999;12(4):307-14. doi: 10.3122/jabfm.12.4.307.
  43. Nganchamung T, Robson MG, Siriwong W. Association between blood cholinesterase activity, organophosphate pesticide residues on hands, and health effects among chili farmers in Ubon Ratchathani Province, northeastern Thailand. Rocz Panstw Zakl Hig. 2017;68(2):175-183. PMID: 28646835.
  44. Martin-Reina J, Casanova AG, Dahiri B, Fernández I, Fernández-Palacín A, Bautista J, Morales AI, Moreno I. Adverse health effects in women farmers indirectly exposed to pesticides. Int J Environ Res Public Health. 2021; 18(11):5909. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph18115909
  45. Mekonnen Y, Ejigu D. Plasma cholinesterase level of Ethiopian farm workers exposed to chemical pesticide. Occup Med (Lond). 2005;55(6):504-5. doi: 10.1093/occmed/kqi088.
  46. Quandt SA, Chen H, Grzywacz JG, Vallejos QM, Galvan L, Arcury TA. Cholinesterase depression and its association with pesticide exposure across the agricultural season among Latino farmworkers in North Carolina. Environ Health Perspect. 2010;118(5):635-9. doi: 10.1289/ehp.0901492.
  47. Abdollahdokht D, Asadikaram G, Abolhassani M, Pourghadamyari H, Abbasi-Jorjandi M, Faramarz S, Nematollahi MH. Pesticide exposure and related health problems among farmworkers' children: a case-control study in southeast Iran. Environ Sci Pollut Res Int. 2021;28(40):57216-57231. doi: 10.1007/s11356-021-14319-1.
  48. Curl CL, Spivak M, Phinney R, Montrose L. Synthetic Pesticides and Health in Vulnerable Populations: Agricultural Workers. Curr Environ Health Rep. 2020;7(1):13-29. doi: 10.1007/s40572-020-00266-5.
  49. Dereumeaux C, Mercier F, Soulard P, Hulin M, Oleko A, Pecheux M, Fillol C, Denys S, Quenel P. Identification of pesticides exposure biomarkers for residents living close to vineyards in France. Environ Int. 2022; 159:107013. doi: 10.1016/j.envint.2021.107013.
  50. Soulard P, Dereumeaux C, Mercier F. Determination of biomarkers of exposure to boscalid, captan, folpel, mancozeb, and tebuconazole in urine and hair samples. MethodsX. 2022; 9:101671. doi: 10.1016/j.mex.2022.101671.
  51. Hayat K, Afzal M, Aqueel MA, Ali S, Saeed MF, Qureshi AK, Ullah MI, Khan QM, Naseem MT, Ashfaq U, Damalas CA. Insecticide toxic effects and blood biochemical alterations in occupationally exposed individuals in Punjab, Pakistan. Sci Total Environ. 2019; 655:102-111. doi: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2018.11.175.


How to Cite

1.
Odisho SK, Mohammad FK. Blood cholinesterase activities and oxidative stress status among farmworkers using pesticides in Duhok, KRG, Iraq. jidhealth [Internet]. 2022 Dec. 29 [cited 2024 Apr. 25];5(4). Available from: https://www.jidhealth.com/index.php/jidhealth/article/view/264

issn

Journal of Ideas in Health

Four Issues Annually

www.jidhealth.com

eISSN: 2645-9248

Founded: 2017

call

Make a Submission

Make a Submission

ToBeRev

road

google

pkpindex

oai

base

tools



cc

doaj

mendeley

doi

jisc

Keywords